Identify the differences between Unitary, Confederal and Federal systems of government

A government is usually the central source of power in any country. There are different types of government with the main ones being unitary, federal and confederal. Each one of these governments has a unique of governing which is distinct making it different from others (Isawa. 1994).Unitary government is a form of government where power is centralized and the local authorities are in charge of all functions of the local government. In most cases unitary government governs cities or states that are big enough to operate independently (Isawa. 1994).Confederal government is where power is diffused and the regional governments have powers to come up with policies. Every state has its own way of operating although there may be a common currency to make trading between the states easier (Isawa. 1994).Federal government is where power is centered on one organ. Every state is governed by one government which is the federal government. It is the supreme center of power. A perfect example is that of the United States of America (Isawa. 1994).Define and give one example for each of the four policy areas: Distribution, Extraction, Regulation and Symbolic Output. Be clear in your definitionsThe policy of distribution refers to the manner in which governments ensure equitable distribution of resource in all areas without favoritism or discrimination. It is the responsibility of the government to ensure that resources are distributed equally.When a government is in power it represents the interest of all people in the country. It is therefore the responsibility of the government to ensure that every citizen in the county has access to the resources available in the county without discrimination or favoritism (Isawa. 1994).The policy of extraction regulates the manner in which natural minerals are mined. In many countries, natural minerals tend to be exploited by those at whom the minerals at their disposal. For this reason, governments of various countries come up with extr action measures that regulate the manner in which the minerals are to be extracted. This is to ensure that the extraction is not overdone, thus causing harm to the environment.Minerals play a key role in promoting the economy of a country. This is because minerals are not common and once mined they are exported thus bringing great income to the country. Some citizens may want to take over the extraction process at the expense of the rest of the citizens (Isawa. 1994).The policy of regulation refers to the manner in which the government regulates the behavior of its citizens. This is mainly done through law enforcement agencies and it is meant to ensure that citizens abide by the laws that are set out by the government.A country that is unruly and disorderly has higher chances of low development and growth. It is for this reason that the government controls the manner in which its citizens behave (Isawa. 1994).They control the manner in which they move, they communicate and they carr y out their daily activities. All these activities contribute to a successful government and a successful country. They are all part and puzzle of every government regardless of the system of government.ReferencesJohn, Isawa. (1994). Systems of government: National Council on Intergovernmental Relations. New York: SAGE. Â  

Jp Morgan& Chase Annual Report

JPMorgan and Chase 2011 Financial Analysis Abbiton Mumba , Bomboma Douti, Thuy Doan, Tracy Nguyen [Type the company address] General Information: JPMorgan Chase (NYSE: JPM) is one of the oldest financial institutions in the United States with a history dating back over 200 years. JPMorgan and Chase is basically included Chase- the U. S. consumer and commercial banking businesses serve customers under the Chase brand. The consumer businesses include: Branch, ATM, telephone and  online banking, Credit cards, Small business, Home finance and  home equity loans, Auto finance, Education finance, Retirement & Investing, Retail Checking.The commercial banking businesses include: Middle Market, Corporate Client Banking, Commercial Real Estate, Business Credit, Equipment Finance, Commercial Term Lending, Community Development. – and JPMorgan which is J. P. Morgan clients include the world's most prominent corporations, governments, wealthy individuals and institutional investors. T hese businesses use the  J. P. Morgan brand: Investment Bank, Asset Management, Treasury Services, Worldwide Securities Services, Private Banking, Private Client Services, One Equity Partners.The corporate headquarters are in  270 Park Avenue,  Midtown,  Manhattan, New York City, New York, and the  retail  and  commercial bank  is headquartered in  Chase Tower,  Chicago Loop,  Chicago, Illinois, United States. The biggest event recently that JPMorgan anticipating in is acquisition of Washington Mutual in 2008. JPMorgan Chase raised $10  billion in a stock sale to cover write-downs and losses after taking on deposits and branches of Washington Mutual  Through the acquisition, JPMorgan now owns the former accounts of  Providian Financial, a credit card issuer Washington Mutual acquired in 2005.The company announced plans to complete the rebranding of Washington Mutual branches to Chase by late 2009. JPMorgan and Chase has the fiscal year end Dec 31. Interne t Information: The internet address of the corporation is www. jpmorgan. com. The website provides broad information. The most important section is the â€Å"Investor relation† section. We can find Financial Information including annual report/ proxy statements, SEC filing, earning release, credit releases, Investor presentations , shareholder information including stock price history.The purpose of website is describe the corporation, provide customer service information, promote the industry the corporate in, provide employment information, publicize corporate citizenship. The annual reports and other different reports can be found in the government website www. sec. gov. The primary Standard Classification (SIC) is 6021 6029 6712 and the Central Index Key (CIK) number assigned to corporations that file with the SEC is 19617. The latest form 10-K is dated February, 29th, 2012. Basically, JPMorgan and Chase have a moderate change in the price of the common stock over the las t two years.The biggest downward slope is between September 2011 to December 2011 and then it continues to be upward sloping. This fall price considers a narrow price range. Income Statement Compared to last year, Revenue growth decreased by -5. 3168%. A decreased of $5,460,000,000. The decline in net revenue from 2010 was driven by lower net interest income, securities gains, mortgage fees related income, and principal transactions revenue, partially offset by higher asset management, administration and commission revenue and higher other income.The increase in noninterest expense was driven largely by higher compensation expense, reflecting increased headcount. Despite the fact that the revenue lost than last year, over the last 5 year the company experienced the increased revenue due to net inflows to products with higher margins, higher deposit and loan balances, and the effect of higher average market levels. Growth in Revenue decreases than last year but Growth in profit incre ases by 9. 2458%. Although the Net Revenue of the current year is less than last year but Pre-provision profit on 2010 decreases from $16,639,000,000 to $7,574,000,000.That reason makes Growth in profit during the current year increased by 9. 2458%. Common-size Analysis: | Current Year| Previous Year| Revenue| 100%| 100%| Non-interest Expense| 64. 70%| 59. 59%| Interest Expense| 13. 99%| 12. 45%| Income Tax Expense| 7. 99%| 7. 29%| Income from continuing operations| 27. 51%| 24. 21%| Net Income| 19. 52%| 16. 91%| In general chase’s total non-interest expenses in 2011 rose 5. 11% higher than the total non-interest expense in 2010. The net income in 2010 seems lower than 2011 due to less operating and investment activities in 2010.Apart the item labeled other expenses and amortization of intangibles; all the other expenses were slightly higher. The increase in non-interest expense was driven largely by higher compensation expense reflecting headcount. The operating cost as part of the non-interest expense was definitely higher compared to 2010. The higher headcount visibly explains this increase. The provision for credit lost was 8. 41% lower than the 2010 provision. This was due to the amelioration of collection from customers. Consumer business modestly improved and mortgage net charge-offs and delinquencies improved.It is probably included in the item â€Å"other expenses† which were lower than 2010 but 6. 38% higher than 2009. Tax Burden: The total revenue in 2011 was 5. 62% lower than the revenue in 2011 but the bottom line was a lot higher than the previous year (2. 61%). The tax burden became consequently higher than the previous year; actually about 0. 7%. The increase in the tax burden due to the higher income in 2011 was definitely the result of the lower provision in credit loss in 2011. The provision in 2010 was about twice the provision in 2011, because of the lower interest revenue.Profitability in 2011 was better than the one in 2010 . As a percentage of total revenue, net income was 2. 61% higher than the one in 2010. Net income in 2011 was by itself 9. 2 % higher than the one in 2010. This was again the result of the lower provision for credit losses. The consumer portfolio also improved. The decline in 2010 was driven by lower net interest income, security gains, mortgage fees and related income. The other-than-temporary impairment losses are included in securities gains for the periods presented was $27million in 2011 and $94 million in 2010. Balance sheet JPMorgan Chase ; Co. s one of the oldest, largest and best-known financial institutions in the world. The firm's legacy dates back to 1799 and operates in more than 50 countries. JPMorgan and Chase is proved to be a mature firm with higher capital and liquidity. The Total Assets on the balance sheet grew $148,187 million, year ending Dec 31, 2011 from previous year ending Dec 31 2010 representing a percentage of 0. 07. The change in Assets were partly due to the acquisition of RBS Sempra on July 1, 2010 and the transaction in 2011 of RBS Sempra which is a commodities’ global oil, global metals and European power and gas businesses.This acquisition almost doubled the number of clients the firm’s commodities’ business can serve and has enabled the firm to offer clients more products in more regions of the world. J. P Morgan Chase completed purchase of the remaining interest in High bridge, which resulted in $228 million Capital surplus. Missing Common size analysis Cash Flow Statement: The cash flows resulting from operation activities in 2010 and 2011 were -$3752 million and $95,932 million. The cash flow resulting from investing activities in 2010 and 2011 was $54,002 million and -$170,752.The cash flow resulting from financing activities in 2010 and 2011was -$49,217 million and $107,706 million. There was a significant increasing in cash $ 32,035 in 2011 and a little $1,361 million in 2010. The beginning in cash balance was $27,567 million and $26,206 million respectively in 2011 and 2010. The ending cash balance in 2011 and 2010 were $59,602 million and $27,567 million. There were three significant sources of cash which were from a hug number of net change in deposit, proceeds from long-term borrowings and trust preferred capital debt securities and from net earnings and sell securities.The three most significant uses of cash were taken from acquisition of businesses or dispositions, purchase securities and loans out and proceed from sales, securitizations and pay downs of loans held-for-sale and net change in trading assets. Based on a comparison of the income statement to the statement of the cash flows, depreciation and amortization in intangible was add back to statement of cash flow and other-than-temporary impairment losses are included in securities gains for the periods presented, caused the greatest differences net income ( loss) and the cash flow from operation. Statement of cha nges in Stockholders’ Equity:The number of common shares outstanding has decreased over 3 years. On March 18, 2011, the Board of Directors approved a $15. 0 billion common equity (i. e. , common stock and warrants) repurchase program, of which $8. 95 billion was authorized for repurchase in 2011. The $15. 0 billion repurchase program superseded a $10. 0 billion repurchase program approved in 2007. During 2011 and 2010, the Firm repurchased (on a trade-date basis) an aggregate of 240 million and 78 million shares of common stock and warrants, for $8. 95 billion and $3. 0 billion, at an average price per unit of $37. 35 and $38. 9, respectively. The Firm did not repurchase any of the warrants during 2010, and did not repurchase any shares of its common stock or warrants during 2009. As of December  31, 2011, approximately 408 million unissued shares of common stock were reserved for issuance under various employee incentive, compensation, option and stock purchase plans, dire ctor compensation plans, and the warrants sold by the U. S. Treasury. Retained Earnings: fixed Dec 31 2011 Dec 31 2010 Beginning Retained earnings (2008) $54,013,000,000 Net Income $944. 00, 000 $1,001,000,000 Ending Retained Earnings $88,315,000,000 $73,998,000,000 From the number above we can conclude that Retained earnings increased in 2008 to $88,315,000,000 from $73,998,000,000 in 2010. Notes and supporting schedules to the financial statements. Cash and cash equivalents: the corporation define their cash equivalents by fund invested in US, T-bills, money market account, demand deposits or small-denomination time deposit and other investment with a maturity of 3 months or less when purchase.Account receivable: The corporation has the gross Account Receivable of $89,087 million current year and $102,413 million in 2010 reflects to 30. 9% and 31. 5% percentage of uncollectible. The lower the ratio the better, JPMorgan and Chase’s percentage uncollectible for 2011 is slight ly better than 2010. The results of the receivable turnover in 2011 and 2010 were 1. 48 times and 2. 69 times respectively. The higher the turnover is the better. However, the current year 2011 is lower than the previous year 2010.This is the result of the higher revenue in 2010. Inventories: N/A Property and Depreciation: The Corporation classified its property, plant and equipment into five categories: land, buildings, leasehold improvements, furniture and fixtures, hardware and software. JPMorgan Chase computes depreciation using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life of an asset. For leasehold improvements, the Firm uses the straight-line method computed over the lesser of the remaining term of the leased facility or the estimated useful life of the leased asset.None of the assets were recognized as impaired during the current year. The Accumulated Depreciation increased from $13,355,000,000 of last year to $14,041,000,000 of current year. Despite the land or co nstruction in progress, percentage of Fixed Asset Depreciation was approximately 23. 17% last year and 23. 26 % this year. For the percentage of fixed asset depreciation do not included land and construction in progress, there is slightly increased from last year to this year. The increase in premise and equipment was predominantly due to renovation of J.P Morgan Chase’s headquarters in New York City, the purchase of a building in London, retail branch expansion in the US, and investment in technology hardware and software, as well as other equipment. The increase was particularly offset by depreciation and amortization. This implies that in the future the company will spend more money on replacing the old equipment and that means it impacts on the capital expenditure on their financial statement. However, the company applies on the fixed asset turnover to generate revenue. The ratios are 7. 50 times last year and 7. 0 this year Operating and Capitalized leases: JP Morgan Cha se hasn’t declared any capitalized leases in the 2011 10K. We do have a section devoted to operating leases. Obligation associated with operating leases in 2011was $2,228 million, and expense associated with operating leases in the current year is $1,825 million. Payment for operating leases next year is $1,753 million. Long term debt: JPMorgan Chase issues long-term debt denominated in various currencies, although predominantly U. S. dollars, with both fixed and variable interest rates.Included in senior and subordinated debt below are various equity-linked or other indexed instruments, which the Firm has elected to measure at fair value. Changes in fair value are recorded in principal transactions revenue in the Consolidated Statements of Income. The following table is a summary of long-term debt carrying values (including unamortized original issue discount, valuation adjustments and fair value adjustments, where applicable) by remaining contractual maturity as of December 31, 2011. Most debts were JPMorgan Chase Capital.The five largest debt were JPMorgan Chase Capital X $1,016 million in amount with the rate of 7%, JPMorgan Chase Capital XXV $2,292 million in amount with the rate of 6. 8% rate, JPMorgan Chase Capitals XXVI $1,815 million in amount with the rate of 8. 0% , JPMorgan Chase Capitals XXVIII $1,500 million in amount with the rate of 7. 2%, JPMorgan Chase Capitals XXIX $1,500 million in amount with the rate of 6. 7%. Those debts aren’t due until next 30 years. JPMorgan and Chase don’t have any significant debt payment outstanding.Pension Plans: JPMorgan and Chase recognize in its statement of financial position the funded status of a benefit plan; measure defined benefit plan assets and obligations as of the end of the employer’s fiscal year (with limited exceptions) and recognize as a component of other comprehensive income, net of tax, the gains or losses and prior service costs or credits that arise but are not rec ognized as components of net periodic benefit costs pursuant to prior existing guidance. JPMorgan and Chase don’t have Defined Contribution Pension expense but Defined Benefit Pension with the expense of 11,808 billion.Defined benefit obligation in the current year: $13461 millions for U. S and Non U. S plans. Fair value of the retirement plan assets at the end of the current year: At December 31, 2011 defined benefit pension plan amounts not measured at fair value included $50 million. At the end of December 2011, the accumulated defined benefit pension obligation had a balance of ($9,008) million, but in my opinion, the plan is well funded. At December 2011, the plan was said to have 2. 6 billion balance overfunded. It is clearly stated in the notes that by December 31st 2011, the U. K plan was $33 million unfunded.Amount recognized on the balance sheet related to pension: $ 1,429 million funded in the U. S, and a non-U. S balance of 160 million. The amount contributed to t he defined benefit pension plan in 2011 was 37 million for the U. S and 169 million for the Non-US. $540 million were paid to retirees in the U. S whereas 93million were paid to non U. S in 2011. Investments in the defined benefit pension fund are the Firm’s U. S. defined benefit pension plan assets are held in trust and are invested in a well-diversified portfolio of equity and fixed income securities, real estate, cash and cash equivalents, and alternative investments (e. . , hedge funds, private equity, real estate and real assets). Non-U. S. defined benefit pension plan assets are held in various trusts and are also invested in well-diversified portfolios of equity, fixed income and other securities. Assets of the Firm’s COLI policies, which are used to partially fund the U. S. OPEB plan, are held in separate accounts with an insurance company and are invested in equity and fixed income index funds. The investment policy for the Firm’s U. S. efined benefit p ension plan assets is to optimize the risk-return relationship as appropriate to the needs and goals using a global portfolio of various asset classes diversified by market segment, economic sector, and issuer. Assets are managed by a combination of internal and external investment managers. Periodically the Firm performs a comprehensive analysis on the U. S. defined benefit pension plan asset allocations, incorporating projected asset and liability data, which focuses on the short-and long-term impact of the asset allocation on cumulative pension expense, economic cost, present value of contributions and funded status.Postretirement Benefits other than Pensions: there is no expense associated with non-pension post-retirement benefit. Benefits obligation for the non-pension post-retirement benefit plan was $999 million in 2011. Fair market value of assets held for non-pension post-retirement benefits plan was 1,435 million in 2011. The plan is adequately funded. The fair market valu e of the post-retirement benefit plan has enough resources to operate. Amount recognized on the balance sheet related to the non-pension post-retirement plan was $436 million.Amount contributed to non-pension post retirement benefits during the current year is $2 million, and amount of non-pension post retirement benefits paid to retirees during the current year is $26 million. Income Taxes: The income tax expense for the current year in the income statement is $7,773 million and $1,693 million of the current year’s income tax expense has been deferred to future periods. The effective tax rate for current year is 29. 1%. There are two types of Income taxes disclosed on the notes: Gross deferred tax asset is $27,632 million and Gross deferred tax liability is $12,856 million.As the results, the Net deferred tax amount is $14,776 million. The significant activities resulted in recognition of deferred tax liabilities that are not yet due to a tax authority are depreciation and a mortization, leasing transactions, non-US transaction and others. On other hand, the significant activities led to the recognition of deferred tax assets will be utilized in the future are allowance for loan losses, employee benefits, accrued expenses and others, non-US operations, tax attribute carry forwards. Stock-Based Compensation: MISSING Segmental and Geographic Information: JPMorgan Chase & Co. JPMorgan Chase) is a financial holding company. The Company is a global financial services firm and a banking institution in the United States, with global operations. The Company is engaged in investment banking, financial services for consumers and small businesses, commercial banking, financial transaction processing, asset management and private equity. JPMorgan Chase’s principal bank subsidiaries are JPMorgan Chase Bank, National Association, a national bank with the United States branches in 23 states, and Chase Bank USA, National Association, a national bank that is the Company’s credit card-issuing bank.The bank and non-bank subsidiaries of JPMorgan Chase operate nationally, as well as through overseas branches and subsidiaries, representative offices and subsidiary foreign banks. One of the Company’s principal operating subsidiaries in the United Kingdom is J. P. Morgan Securities Ltd. , a subsidiary of JPMorgan Chase Bank; N. A. JPMorgan Chase’s activities are organized into six business segments, as well as Corporate/Private Equity. JPMorgan Chase’s activities are organized into six business segments, as well as Corporate/Private Equity.The Company’s wholesale businesses comprise the Investment Bank (IB), Commercial Banking (CB), Treasury & Securities Services (TSS) and Asset Management (AM) segments. The Company’s consumer businesses comprise the Retail Financial Services (RFS) and Card Services & Auto (Card) segments. Contingencies: NEED TO FIX Probable Litigation: The Firm has established reserves fo r several hundred of its currently outstanding legal proceedings. The Firm accrues for potential liability arising from such proceedings when it is probable that such liability has been incurred and the amount of the loss can be reasonably estimated.The Firm evaluates its outstanding legal proceedings each quarter to assess its litigation reserves, and makes adjustments in such reserves, upwards or downwards, as appropriate, based on management’s best judgment after consultation with counsel. During the years ended December 31, 2011, 2010 and 2009, the Firm incurred $4. 9 billion, $7. 4 billion and $161 million, respectively, of litigation expense. There is no assurance that the Firm’s litigation reserves will not need to be adjusted in the future.Mortgage Foreclosure Investigations and litigation: JPMorgan Chase and four other firms have agreed to a settlement in principle (the â€Å"global settlement†) with a number of federal and state government agencies, in cluding the U. S. Department of Justice, the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and the State Attorneys General, relating to the servicing and origination of mortgages. The global settlement, which is subject to the execution of a definitive agreement and court approval, calls for the Firm to, among other things: (i) make cash payments of approximately $1. billion (a portion of which will be set aside for payments to borrowers); (ii) provide approximately $500 million of refinancing relief to certain â€Å"underwater† borrowers whose loans are owned by the Firm; and (iii) provide approximately $3. 7 billion of additional relief for certain borrowers, including reductions of principal on first and second liens, payments to assist with short sales, deficiency balance waivers on past foreclosures and short sales, and forbearance assistance for unemployed homeowners. If the Firm does not meet certain targets for provision o f the refinancing or other borrower relief within certain prescribed time periods, the Firm will instead make cash payments. ) In addition, under the global settlement the Firm will be required to adhere to certain enhanced mortgage servicing standards. Overdraft Fee/Debit Posting Order Litigation: JPMorgan Chase Bank, N. A. has been named as a defendant in several purported class actions relating to its practices in posting debit card transactions to customers’ deposit accounts.Plaintiffs allege that the Firm improperly re-ordered debit card transactions from the highest amount to the lowest amount before processing these transactions in order to generate unwarranted overdraft fees. Plaintiffs contend that the Firm should have processed such transactions in the chronological order they were authorized. Plaintiffs seek the disgorgement of all overdraft fees paid to the Firm by plaintiffs since approximately 2003 as a result of the re-ordering of debit card transactions.The cl aims against the Firm have been consolidated with numerous complaints against other national banks in multi-District litigation pending in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida. The Firm’s motion to compel arbitration of certain plaintiffs’ claims was initially denied by the District Court. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit vacated the District Court’s order and remanded the case for reconsideration in light of a recent ruling by the United States Supreme Court in an unrelated case addressing the enforcement of an arbitration provision in a consumer product agreement.The Firm has reached an agreement in principle to settle this matter in exchange for the Firm paying $110 million and agreeing to change certain overdraft fee practices. The settlement is subject to documentation and court approval. Service Members Civil Relief Act and Housing and Economic recovery Act Investigations and litigation : multiple government officials have conducted inquiries into the Firm’s procedures related to the Service Members Civil Relief Act (â€Å"SCRA†) and the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 (â€Å"HERA†).These inquiries were prompted by the Firm’s public statements about its SCRA and HERA compliance and actions to remedy certain instances in which the Firm mistakenly charged active or recently-active military personnel mortgage interest and fees in excess of that permitted by SCRA and HERA, and in a number of instances, foreclosed on borrowers protected by SCRA and HERA. The Firm has implemented a number of procedural enhancements and controls to strengthen its SCRA and HERA compliance.In addition, an individual borrower filed a nationwide class action in United States District Court for South Carolina against the Firm alleging violations of the SCRA related to home loans. The Firm agreed to pay $27 million plus attorneys’ fees, in addition t o reimbursements previously paid by the Firm, to settle the class action. Additional borrowers were subsequently added to the class, and the Firm agreed to pay an additional $8 million into the settlement fund. The court entered a final order approving the settlement in January 2012. Reasonable Possible:The Firm believes the estimate of the aggregate range of reasonably possible losses, in excess of reserves established, for its legal proceedings is from $0 to approximately $5. 1 billion at December 31, 2011. This estimated aggregate range of reasonably possible losses is based upon currently available information for those proceedings in which the Firm is involved, taking into account the Firm’s best estimate of such losses for those cases for which such estimate can be made. For certain cases, the Firm does not believe that an estimate can currently be made.The Firm’s estimate involves significant judgment, given the varying stages of the proceedings (including the f act that many are currently in preliminary stages), the existence in many such proceedings of multiple defendants (including the Firm) whose share of liability has yet to be determined, the numerous yet-unresolved issues in many of the proceedings (including issues regarding class certification and the scope of many of the claims) and the attendant uncertainty of the various potential outcomes of such proceedings.Accordingly, the Firm’s estimate will change from time to time, and actual losses may be more than the current estimate. Auction Rate Securities Investigations and Litigation: Beginning in March 2008, several regulatory authorities initiated investigations of a number of industry participants, including the Firm, concerning possible state and federal securities law violations in connection with the sale of auction-rate securities.The market for many such securities had frozen and a significant number of auctions for those securities began to fail in February 2008. Th e Firm also faces a number of civil actions relating to the Firm’s sales of auction-rate securities, including a putative securities class action in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York that seeks unspecified damages, and individual arbitrations and lawsuits in various forums brought by institutional and individual investors that, together, seek damages totaling approximately $50 million.The actions generally allege that the Firm and other firms manipulated the market for auction-rate securities by placing bids at auctions that affected these securities’ clearing rates or otherwise supported the auctions without properly disclosing these activities. Some actions also allege that the Firm misrepresented that auction-rate securities were short-term instruments. The lawsuits are being coordinated before the federal District Court in New York.Additionally, the Firm was named in two putative antitrust class actions. The actions allege that the Firm, along with numerous other financial institution defendants, colluded to maintain and stabilize the auction-rate securities market and then to withdraw their support for the auction-rate securities market. In January 2010, the District Court dismissed both actions. An appeal is pending in the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.Interim (Quarterly Reporting: During the current year 2011, the company’s revenue for 1st quarter is $25,221 million, 2nd quarter is $26,779 million, 3rd quarter is $23,763 million and 4th quarter is $21,471 million. There is a significant fluctuation in quarterly data because It experienced a decrease in revenues during the current year from 1st quarter to 4th quarter. Report of independent Auditors: Auditor is PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP located at 300 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10017. The auditor believes that the financial statements were presented fairly.Their opinion is stated as follow: In our opinion, the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and the related consolidated statements of income, changes in stockholders' equity and comprehensive income and cash flows present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of JPMorgan Chase ; Co. and its subsidiaries (the â€Å"Firm†) at December 31, 2011 and 2010, and the results of their operations and their cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2011, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.Also in our opinion, the Firm maintained, in all material respects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2011, based on criteria established in Internal Control – Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO). Report of Internal control: Management of JPMorgan Chase ; Co. (â€Å"JPMorgan Chase â€Å"or the â€Å"Firm†) is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting. The same authority, Management of JPMorgan Chase ; Co. â€Å"JPMorgan Chase â€Å"or the â€Å"Firm†) is responsible for maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting. The auditor does believe that the corporation maintained adequate internal control over financial reporting. Here is their opinion: â€Å"in our opinion, the Firm maintained, in all material respects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2011, based on criteria established in Internal Control – Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO). Ratio Analysis Analysis of profitability: The profit margins were 16. 1% and 19. 52 % to the following 2010 and 2011 year end. The increase in profit margin due to the advantage of the allowance for losses, noninterest revenue and interest expense. Interest income and interest expense is recorded in the Consolidated Statements of Income and classified based on the nature of the underlying asset or liability. Interest income and interest expense includes the current-period interest accruals for financial instruments measured at fair value, except for financial instruments containing embedded derivatives that would be separately accounted for in accordance with U.S. GAAP absent the fair value option election; for those instruments, all changes in fair value including any interest elements, are reported in principal transactions revenue. For financial instruments that are not measured at fair value, the related interest is included within interest income or interest expense, as applicable. The corporation has the return on assets of 0. 86% in 2011 and 0. 79% in 2010. The returns on assets were significant low compare to return on stockholder’s equity of 10. 5% in 2011 and 9. 66% in 2010. In general, JPMorgan and Chase is a big corporation, but they had a tight controlled and managed very well. Therefore, their earning is improved and very stable in recent year although the economy looks doom. Earnings per share (â€Å"EPS†) is calculated under the two-class method under which all earnings (distributed and undistributed) are allocated to each class of common stock and participating securities based on their respective rights to receive dividends.JPMorgan Chase grants restricted stock and RSUs to certain employees under its stock-based compensation programs, which entitle recipients to receive non-forfeitable dividends during the vesting period on a basis equivalent to the dividends paid to holders of common stock; these unvested awards meet the definition of participating securities. Options issued under employee benefit plans that have an anti-dilutive effect are excluded from the computation of diluted EPS. EPS in 2011 was $4. 50 compare to 2010 of $ 3. 98. This increase is the result of increasing in net income in 2011 due to bet ter management.The corporation does disclose the diluted EPS with $4. 48 in 2011 and $3. 96 in 2010. Cash dividend per share in 2011 was $ 0. 94 dollar per share and $0. 36 dollar per share in 2010. Dividend payout ratio for 2010 was 16% and 35% in 2011. Price/ Earning ratio also improves between 2010 with 9. 26 times and 2011 with 9. 62 times. In the past decade, the average P/E ratio for Major Corporation has ranged from 14 to 25. JPMorgan and Chase’s P/E was below the range about 5 points. However, we can’t say that JPMorgan and Chase is no t growing.JPMorgan Corporation is huge plus with the gloomy economy right now, but this corporation still generates profitability while other corporation in the same industry is struggling. This tell us that JPMorgan is a stable for a long run. Analysis of Liquidity: JPMorgan and Chase had the current (working capital) ratio in 2011 of 1. 55:1 and 1. 71:1 in 2010. Net working capital was $964,168 million in 2011 and $932,220 in 2 010. Quick (Acid –Test) ratios were 0. 28:1 in 2011 and 0. 31:1 in 2010. The liquidity position of the corporation weakened a little in 2011.Although there was an increase in cash and receivables in 2011, there was less account receivable compared to 2010. There was also a large increase in current liabilities in 2011, because of the increase in deposit. Based on this, JP Morgan Chase should be able to meet its current obligation even though the ratio was a little down compare to the previous year of 2010. Since it is a big and sustainable corporation in the financial industry, there is rarely a change for them to have a problem with the working capital. Analysis of Solvency: Debt to total Assets in 2011 was 91. 8% and 91. 6% in 2010.There is not much difference between the debt to assets ratio showing the amount of leverage JP Morgan Chase used to finance its operations between the year 2011 and the year 2010.. The rule of thumb is to make sure that the bottom which is the a ssets is larger than the top which is the liabilities. The ratio of 91. 8% percent for the year 2011 and 91. 6% for the year 2010 at first glance would give an impression of a company which is over leveraged. This is not the case, JPMorgan Chase Debt to Assets ratio is very consistent with the banking industry standards especially banks of JPMorgan Chase size.Banks make money by lending other peoples money. It never hurts however, to bring the ratio a little lower as it would give the bank more space to maneuver should there be a financial melting in the general economy like the one experienced in 2008. Potential lenders would prefer the ratio to be as lower as much as possible because that would show that the company has more Assets than Liabilities which can help the company pay its debt when it’s due or assets that can be liquidated to pay its lenders should the company end up in liquidation. Missing Time Interest Earned Ratio Industry Competitor Comparison:A close competi tor of JPMorgan Chase is Bank of America Corporation. The difference between these large banks is that Bank of America is primarily a bank operating in other financial services while J. P. Morgan is an investment firm also operating as a bank. It has offices in more than 60 countries of the world. Both companies have relatively similar gross profit percentages; but percentages changed if we go down to income from continuing operations of both companies. As we see on the table 3, we know that the Net income from continuing operations of JP Morgan Chase is greater than Bank of America Corporation.This shows that Chase is good at managing costs on other income and expenses besides selling general and administrative and others. On the balance sheets, we both see the similar common-size on total assets of both companies. Another difference between two of them is the profitability. As we see on Table 3, profit margin of Chase bank is higher due to net income (gain) while Bank of America e xperiences a net loss. Return on asset for both companies are pretty low on last year. Return on equity for Chase bank is higher that means the shareholders earn a sufficient return on their equity investment.The major different on Profitability ratio between two companies is the dividend payout ratio which is the Bank of America is way too high. It indicates the company pays high dividends whose stock price is temporary not good. Moreover, a high dividend payout ratio can also point to a mature company with few growth opportunities. On other hand, Chase bank has low dividend payout ratio that we know Chase is a fast-growing company whose shareholders willingly forego cash dividends, because the company uses the extra money to generate higher returns and, in turn, a high stock price.As a conclusion, JP Morgan Chase is more profitable than Bank of America Corporation. Compared on the liquidity ratios, both companies meet their requirements on pay their liabilities on time. If we take down to Acid test, we easily understand Bank of America has more liquid assets available to pay its current debts. On the debt ratio, both companies’ ratios are over 0. 5 which means both companies’ assets are finances through debts. On the Time interest earned ratio, JP Morgan Chase is little bit higher which is better since Bank of America Corporation Company has more debts.Last but not least, Operational ratios are very similar and they both efficiently know how to use the assets on sales. As the whole comparison between too biggest bank firms, I think they are overall doing very well on managing their companies. Taking on to the details, JP Morgan Chase has more probability on sales. Bank of America is still doing fine but if I prefer invest on JP Morgan Chase’ stock. |   JP Morgan ;Chase |   | Bank of America Corp. |   | Income Statement Common-Size Data|   |   |   |   | Gross Profit/Sales| 92. 0%|   | 95. 6%|   | Income from Continuing O perations/Sales| 19. 5%|   | 7. %|   | Balance Sheet Common-Size Data|   |   |   |   | Current Assets/Total Assets| 19. 5%|   | 42. 5%|   | Current Liabilities/Total Assets| 71. 4%|   | 74. 1%|   | Liabilities/Total Assets| 91. 9%|   | 89. 2%|   | Equity/Total Assets| 8. 1%|   | 10. 8%|   | Profitabilty Ratios|   |   |   |   | Profit Margin| 19. 5%|   | 1. 3%|   | Return on Assets| 0. 9%|   | 0. 1%|   | Return on Equity| 10. 6%|   | 0. 7%|   | Dividend Payout Ratio| 18. 0%|   | 400. 0%|   | Liquidity Ratios|   |   |   |   | Current Ratio| 0. 62 :1|   | 0. 64:1|   | Quick Ratio| 0. 27 :1|   | 0. 2:1|   | Solvency Ratios|   |   |   |   | Debt/Total Assets| 0. 92|   | 0. 89|   | Times Interest Earned (Accrual)| 3. 00|   | 1. 12|   | Operational Ratios|   |   |   |   | Receivable Turnover| 1. 5|   | 1. 5|   | Inventory Turnover| N/A|   | N/A|   |  © 2008 William R. Pasewark|   |   |   |   | | | | | | Making Decision based on annual report Total net revenue for 2011 was $97. 2 billion, a decrease of $5. 5 billion, or 5%, from 2010. Results for 2011 were driven by lower net interest income in several businesses, lower securities gains in Corporate/Private Equity, ower mortgage fees and related income in RFS, and lower principal transactions revenue in Corporate/Private Equity. These declines were partially offset by higher asset management fees, largely in AM. Investment banking fees decreased from 2010, predominantly due to declines in equity and debt underwriting fees. The impact from lower industry-wide volumes in the second half of 2011 more than offset the Firm's record level of debt underwriting fees in the first six months of the year. Advisory fees increased for the year, reflecting higher industry-wide completed M&A volumes relative to the 2010 level. Management discussion and analysis) Revenues increased from 2009 to 2010 by 2. 25 %. The increase c ame in part from noninterest income, securities and principal transactions. The economy will be the most important factor on the banking industry in the next year. The mortgage industry is still hurting even if it shows some signs of improvement. JP Morgan showed a net profit of at 5 billion this first quarter of the year, but it is hard to predict if the total revenue at the end of the year would match the previous year’s revenues.Next year’s revenue is probably going to be in the 100-103 billion range. JP Morgan Chase’s income comes from diverse business units. The total revenues increased 2. 25% from 2009 to 2010. The increase came from asset management, the noninterest revenue, the security gains and the item marked other income. Also the reduction in the allowances for credit losses for mortgages and credit cards as a result of improved delinquency trends and lower estimated losses reflected the net revenue increase. Principal transactions revenue increased compared with 2009.This was driven by the Private Equity business, which had significant private equity gains in 2010, compared with a small loss in 2009, reflecting improvements in market conditions. Net income next year could be in the 19 to 20 billion range. In my opinion, JP Morgan chase’s assets will have a stable growth in the next few years. Despite the visible improvement in the economy, the banking industry is not likely to record rapid growth in the next few years. The recovery is still weak; investments are still lagging and so directly affecting the books of the banks. I expect the total Assets to increase a little more next year based on the mprovement in the broad United States and World economy. My belief is based on the fact that JPMorgan performed better than the average bank in 2010 and 2010 arguably the west years for any business in recent history due to the subprime mortgage melt down of the financial markets. The last few years so a high number of unemp loyment hitting 10% before starting drop later part of 2011 and the highest number of mortgage foreclosure. The mortgage industry as bottomed and the market is already healing and banks like Wellfargo are already posting stronger than expected results due to their mortgage based assets performing better than expected.JPMorgan Chase’s balance sheet looks relatively strong and do not show that it will need additional financing next few years. It has deposits in excess of $85,279,000,000 and it is sitting on cash of $59,602,000,000. JPMorgan Chase should not have a problem raising funds from the Capital market should they need additional financing based on the strength and growth of its balance sheet. The strength that JPMorgan chase has is the relative ability and strength of deposits which Chase can use to fund its business.This is one advantage banks like Lehman brothers that went under during the financial crisis may not have had. The three areas we see as the strongest aspe ct of JPMorgan Chase is high balance of deposits with the bank in the amount of 85,279,000,000 which shows the relative confidence the market in JPMorgan. Cash deposits are particularly important to banks because they use this morning to lend out for interest and other related fees. The 2011 balance show retained earnings in the amount $88,315,000,000 and retained earning $73,998,000,000 on the 2010 balance sheets respectively.This is important because it shows that JPMorgan Chase have enough resources to fund it operations and enough left over to reinvest into the business for future growth. The Debt to Total Asset ratio was 91. 8% 2011 and 91. 6% 2010 respectively showing that JPMorgan Chase has more Assets than Liabilities which should help the firm raise financing from the markets . should there be a need. This always a good indication to the investors that there investment is covered should the company goes into liquidation.One of the biggest weaknesses we identified was the re lative number of law suits and the amount funds that is being spent on settling law suits. Though the Debt income ratio is way better than most of the banks in its industry, we believe it would be helpful to bring the amount of leverage down to somewhere around . 075 % to better absorb economic shocks in the larger economy. We are very optimistic for the future of JPMorgan Chase especially as the mortgage industry bottom out and American economy continues creating jobs;we will see banks start do declare above average profits. The firm’s Stock price at 43. 4 is performing relatively better than it competitors like Bank of America at 8. 8 and Citi group at 34 indicating that investors still have confidence in the company. We would not invest in the stock of JPMorgan Chase stock at the moment even if we had money available to invest because we strongly feel that JPM Morgan already a very mature company and does not offer much potential for growth. We would instead invest in comp etitors such Capital One Corp. which is a relatively small and growing company with enough potential for growth. There stock price also now at 53 has performed better than JPMorgan Chase over the past year.

Explain the federal court system in its entirety. Be sure to state and Essay

Explain the federal court system in its entirety. Be sure to state and explain each of the courts that comprise the federal syst - Essay Example The hierarchy of courts also includes several administrative courts such as the U.S. Claims Court, the Court of International Trade, quasi-judicial tribunals of the federal regulatory agencies and the military tribunals (Van Devort 2000). It also includes the U.S. Tax Court and a lesser tribunal, the U.S. Court of Veterans Appeal. The federal district court is a court of original jurisdiction; this is where â€Å"cases and controversies† are file for the first time (Van Dervort 2000). From the trial courts cases are brought for appeal in the U.S. court of appeals. The U.S. court of appeals is the intermediate appeals courts in the federal system. It has two types the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals and U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. The first has limited jurisdiction and only hear and decide cases regarding questions of law and not of fact from the district courts and is also the appellate court for the U.S. Tax Court. The second has jurisdiction to hear appeals from district courts based on specialized matters such as cases arising from patent laws and damages against the federal government, and possess jurisdiction over appeals from several administrative bodies and from the decisions of the U.S. Claims Court and the Court of International Trade.

Hunting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hunting - Essay Example Nature lovers and wild life activists continuously try to spread awareness that hunting an animal is not only unethical but may also interfere with the food chain. When the existence of a particular species is threatened the world faces a misbalance too. Though laws in all most all countries exist, which forbids killing of endangered species, yet a group of people ignore the severity of the problem and continue hunting. In Nagaland, a tribal place in India, villagers hunt the Great Hornbill just to pluck their feathers to make dresses or headgears. The hunting has become so severe that only a few hundred Great Hornbills exist today. Some people illegally hunt endangered species like one-horned rhinoceros or African elephants to use their horns and teeth for trade purposes. It is evident that not everyone is aware of the fact that animals have precious lives too and need to be protected. We cannot eliminate an entire species for our own selfish purposes. More National parks and Reserv es should be set up to protect wildlife and animals from external threat and forest officers should be employed to look after the animals in these areas and protect them from poachers. Laws covering animal protection must include severe punishments for the law-breakers and such people should not be pardoned at all. Since it is us who have destroyed the natural habitats of most wildlife animals, we should be responsible for their rehabilitation and protection. The national parks and bioreserves should also employ veterinarians to ensure immediate medical attention for animals in times of need. But, more importantly mass education should be conducted in every country to educate the people about the need of animal protection and unethical hunting. In some countries killing certain animals for sport is supported and there are seasons called hunting seasons which allows hunters to hunt animals like antlered bucks, antlerless bucks, minks, foxes, turkeys and small game animals like rabbit s, raccoons or squirrels. In fact, sometimes hunting is termed as â€Å"ethical hunting† which is a mockery of the word â€Å"ethics† itself; because I do not think anyone with the right ethics would ever indulge in hunting. Wildlife biologists agree that overpopulation of deer poses a problem, but they reject the idea that foxes, turkey and game animals must be included in the hunting list too. Hunting parks issue licenses and allow one license holder only a certain number of kills per year. Parks do their own duty by printing manuals that train hunters in recognizing animals and issue rules about using hunting weapons. However, even after such precautions some hunters fail to recognize animals from a distance and may kill a species that should not hunted. In other cases, hunters do not kill their game entirely and leave it badly injured or crippled. In such cases the injured animals suffers a long and utterly painful death. According to a PETA report â€Å"A member of the Maine Bow Hunters Alliance estimates that fifty percent of animals who are shot with crossbows are wounded but not killed. A study of 80- radio collared white-tailed deer, found that, out of 22 deer that had been shot with traditional archery equipment, 11 were wounded but not recovered.† Thus, a high percentage of animals are only wounded. â€Å"

"FLOW" Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

"FLOW" Assignment - Essay Example He author indicates that people cannot acquire happiness by, â€Å"consciously searching for it† (Csikszentmihalyi 2). For this reason, the book primarily focuses on the â€Å"flow† in reference to the states that people encounter in spite of the challenges that the universe brings forth. These states happen to everyone regardless of their cultures, ages, or societal statuses. The book describes Flow as a conscious state, which is possible to achieve on a personal path. This state has common elements in which the person experiencing it can be the only that can identify it. The author looks at the common experiences and descriptions of people in the â€Å"flow† state. In this case, people in the â€Å"flow† seemingly achieve the state of consciousness, which is in harmony with their feelings and environment. Flow creates an inner state of being or an inexplicable moment of indescribable peace, fulfillment and happiness that people experience at exceptional intervals. The peace and satisfaction is separate from the people’s external environment. When an individual is in the flow state, he or she focuses on doing those things that are meaningful and purposeful. For this reason, an individual in such a state is absorbed in performing their activities, and they have a sense of connection with themselves and with others. The basis for the experiences is seemingly for controlling consciousness and the creation of meaning in a state of unity, which remains to be consistent with the themes of an individual’s life. For this reason, Csikszentmihalyi identifies the optimal experience as something that a person can achieve given the challenges and opportunities available for expansion. The overall theme of Csikszentmihalyi’s writing is happiness. The author points out that the Aristotelian concept that everything people look for, whether power, fame, wealth or any other thing, are only valuable when they believe that they will make them happy.

General American Democracy and foreign policy Essay

General American Democracy and foreign policy - Essay Example It is submitted that such an argument ignores the complex socio-political backdrop of the US demographic, which has been instrumental in shaping the American constitutional conventions and in turn the American concept of democracy (DeRossa, p.23). For example, if we firstly consider the historical context, it is evident that the interrelationship between the interests of various ethnonational groups and continuous conflict has been instrumental in developing the American institutional framework for democracy. A prime example is the Civil War and the Bleeding Kansas Backdrop (Rawley 1980). For example, James Rawley’s â€Å"Race and Politics: Bleeding Kansas and the Coming of the Civil War† (1980) provides a detailed analysis of the controversies surrounding the repeal of the Missouri compromise and implementation of the Kansas/Nebraska Act 1854. Rawley raises the question as to whether the unsettled Kansas Territory, which was divided between pro-slavery proponents and abolitionists, resulted in irreconcilable factions which in turn creating conditions that only civil war could resolve. In considering the Bleeding Kansas backdrop, Rawley argues that the majority of literature focuses on the slavery debate and ins titution of slavery, without a detailed consideration of race and racial prejudice. In utilising the race debate, Rawley seeks to highlight what he posits as the overriding motivation for the Civil War being the white man’s supremacy struggle as opposed to a fight for emancipation and civil liberties for African Americans. As such, Rawley posits that the central issue in Bleeding Kansas was not the institution of slavery itself but rather race and whether the country could tolerate the expansion of the African American, whether slave or free. If we firstly consider the historical backdrop, Rawley provides an overview of the implementation of the Kansas /Nebraska Act 1854 and highlights the fact that the 1854 legislation organised the

Risk Assessment Continuity Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Risk Assessment Continuity Plan - Essay Example Simply put, a continuity plan comes into play when internal or external factors influence the company to resort to emergency actions in order to continue providing services to their clients. In our case, the company’s continuity plan comes into action if the database integrity is damaged or information security is compromised. As suggested by Britt (2005) a modular stepwise plan is most effective and that is how our continuity plan would function if the risk assessment recommendations are already established. Since our security is working on several layers, the continuity plan would also work in layers which will be connected to how bad a breach is made into our systems. For instance, if a hacker attack has been detected and we know that the hacker did not manage to go thorough any layers of our security, it would be useless to require a physical change of location for our database storage servers since it would simply mean that we are reacting too much. On the other hand, if there is a fire in the building which damages the property to such an extent that business becomes impossible to continue in the same location, a secondary location must be activated where we can continue to provide services to our clients and maintain our operations at more or less the same levels. Similarly, a virus which brings down our network or corrupts the database stored on one location might require the activation of a secondary location where the most recent backup of the database could be used for continuity of business (Britt, 2005). As it has been ascertained by nearly every writer working on the topic of continuity plans, backups are essential for a smooth recovery from disaster (Gouldson, 2002). An accidental disaster does mean a flood or hurricane since in those cases a company may have a few days of warning to ensure that everything is in place to counter that. An accidental disaster can be natural, i.e. earthquake or lightning strike but

My Head and My Hear by Maria Cosway Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My Head and My Hear by Maria Cosway - Article Example From this discussion it is clear that  the heart admits that it is in grief and regrets all the actions t has done before. The counter argument is presented in a genius way by the heart implying that the heart can correct all the past mistakes. The head claims that the heart condemns others but still goes back to embrace and welcome them. On defense part, the hearts admits the mistakes and asks the head to provide any solution if any exists. The head fails to provide this demanded solution and it marks a failure on the part of the head.This essay stresses that another argument is raised relating to the moment when the head and the heart visited Legrand and Molinos. The head claims that it preferred the hearts opinion was not present when making decisions implying that the heart provided a wrong opinion contributing to a wrong decision. The head also claims that it was busy concentrating on constructive ideas while the heart was busy making friends and not contributing to meaningful development. The head claims that many friends took advantage of the hearts weakness to lie and pretend before the heart. The heart takes a chance to mock the events of the day that the head claimed to have done meaningful activities. In its mockery, the heart mocks the beautiful cities and the beautiful sceneries they both witnessed. According to the heart, the head did not do anything meaningful for that day.

Pans Labrynth Newspaper Article Essay Example for Free

Pans Labrynth Newspaper Article Essay Yesterday night, police took in 13 suspects who could have been related to the brutal murder of a child. A young female, roughly aged 8 10 years was found murdered outside the famous Labyrinth, El laberinto del fauno. Police have asked around the local area of Bilbao, but have asked the townspeople to come forward, as they might hold the vital information of this case. Policà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a Juan Marà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½gon states that We want to finish this case within 4 6 weeks, we need the key to solving this murder, but someone out there holds it, not us. Police have told the public, with help from the forensics, they have found fingerprints of the future suspects. The 13 men who are kept in for indepent interviews Have released information about who they are and that they are part of the Spanish Maquis guerrillas. The man and his sister have also revealed a quote from behalf of both of them; We knew the girl, she was very close to us both. Once alone, the woman said The girl was like my own daughter. I used to look after her as my own. I hope the police find out who done such a thing. Later on, Detective Felipà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Romerez revealed the names of the woman and her brother. The woman, Mercedes Julientos, and her brother, Frederico Julientos are both suspects themselves. Whilst on the crime scene, forensics had discovered another body, one of a man, who is seemed to be aged 40 or over. During each interview, Mercedes and Frederico have both denied seeing a man at the time of the killing. At the time of the police arriving, Mercedes was holding a very young baby, who forensics say, after eximaning the body of the male, could be related to the male. The 13 suspects, along with Mercedes Julientos, and her brother, Frederico Julientos are all going under for custody of the police. They all will later be taken to court to be proven innocent or guilty. A later date wil be published for the court hearing. If more than 8 of the suspects are found guilty, each could be facing a minimum of 7 years in jail. Other suspects that have been interviewed and released on bail are many who were at the crime scene. 2 of the 13 main suspects have tried to escape, but the cheif of the Spanish police caught both red handed. They have been told that their stunt could effect their hearing and their trial. Police and forensics have partially identified the body as Ophelia Llimero, aged 8. The brother of Ophelia Llimero, is now left orphan, but will be staying with Mercedes Julientos for the time being. Sailinda Hugamos, the neighbour of Videl Llimero, said Ophelia and I were so close. She used to come to my house everyday to eat my homemade famous Salsa. My husband and I will be extremely devestated. The area around the great big fig tree in El laberinto del fauno will be closed off until forensics have fully analysed the whole area, and until further notice. All of the area has been closed off to local people and tourists. Dates for the hearings for the 13 suspects, excluding Mercedes Julientos, and her brother, Frederico Julientos are yet to be decided.

Sigmund Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective

Sigmund Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective Introduction The origins of The Psychodynamic Perspective can be traced to the early work of Sigmund Freud. Using sub headings this essay will identify the main tenets of Freud’s approach to the understanding of human behaviour: his views on determinism; his use of hypnosis as therapy; his belief that human behaviour is controlled by separate yet interlinked layers of the mind (conscious and unconscious); his views on sex and aggression; and the importance he placed on unresolved and unseen conflict involving the ‘ego’, the ‘id’, and the ‘superego’ (Cave: 1999, p.31/2). The work will then explore how the perspective might be used in a healthcare setting, and will assess inherent strengths and weaknesses. Determinism Determinism, the belief that ‘every state of affairs, including every human event, act, and decision is the inevitable consequence of antecedent states of affairs’ (GuruNet: for details see References) greatly influenced Freud who sought to identify hidden causes for human behaviours. His theory is a dynamic process from the early years of a human’s life where the first interactions with others affect the development of the personality, through to the adult years where the person learns and adopts social values. Hypnosis During his time in France, Freud observed the work of Jean Charcot whose use  of hypnosis led to his ‘inducing and curing hysterical paralyses by means of direct  hypnotic suggestion.’ (Gay: 1998, p.49). Later work with Josef Breuer involved hypnosis where patients recalled traumatic experiences and expressed their emotions as a way to release the conflict within; this was the cathartic method. Freud began to develop his idea that emotionally disturbed patients had problems that were sexually orientated, and, as a development on his work in hypnosis he worked on the idea of ‘free association.’ (Nye: 1975, p.11). Instead of sending patients into a trance using his voice, Freud altered the technique of hypnosis so that the patient independently drew forth words and feelings which might be analysed or explained by the analyst. Unconscious and Conscious activity ‘Freud himself regarded the concept of the unconscious as fundamental to psychoanalysis. It is what makes the psychoanalytic approach distinctive; it is the defining characteristic of the Freudian perspective towards human action.’ (Bocock: 2002, P.32) One of the fundamental beliefs behind Freud’s work was indeed his distinction  between the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious areas of the human mind. He stipulated that the unconscious was the governing force where dreams, habits, thoughts and feelings originate from. In order to investigate these phenomenon he used psychoanalysis; as Nye phrases it in The Three Psychologies ‘it is the role of psychoanalysis to unravel the mystery by seeking the sources of thoughts, feelings, and actions in hidden drives and conflicts.’ (1975, p.10). Through using this technique Freud aimed to identify the nature of crucial communications occurring in early childhood which would affect adult behaviour. Dream interpretation is another of Freud’s infamous techniques; occurring when a person is asleep and unguarded he claimed that this was an opportunity for  unconscious drives and desires to manifest themselves through symbolic images. The  waking human mind however is conscious, meaning that it is aware of what is  immediate to it, and the preconscious is the level between. As Nye summarises it: ‘the unconscious consists of all aspects of our personalities of which we are unaware. The preconscious consists of that which is not immediately at the level of awareness  but is fairly accessible.’ (1975, p.13). The id As part of his understanding of human behaviour Freud identified the human personality as constituting three different structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is what the human child is born with instinct which contains base biological drives; the id seeks immediate satisfaction of primitive impulses, and operates on the ‘pleasure principle’ (Freud: 1927, p.30), seeking to avoid pain and maximise gratification. The instincts that a person is born with remain with them for life: life energy and death energy, which exist side by side, respectively concern the drive to survive (eat, drink, reproduce), and the primitive tendency to return to the ‘inanimate state’ (Nye: 1975, p.14) which has its origins in the prehistory of the world where life forms were unstable. Sex and Aggression ‘In proposing two psychological entities: our animal selves, in the form of the id, and our social selves, the ego and super-ego, (Freud) directly addressed the relationship between biology and socialisation, and the dynamic between them. For Freud, being human was individual peoples endless negotiation between the two.’ (Bland: 2003). It is precisely such negotiation that causes the varieties and extremes of behaviour seen in human beings. As well as the life and death instincts, humans are driven by their sexual drive and their aggressive drive; these being underlying causes of human behaviour. Freud made no distinction between what people might class as ‘everyday’ feelings and sexual feelings. Because humans are animals they are driven to  experience primal urges and desires but simultaneously live in a society where  standards contain and condition human behaviour. Thus, this is where the conflict arises between the drives of the id and the learnt morality of the superego so that anxiety, fear, and neuroses can all be traced to a basic incompatibility of the human  instinct with the socialised world which has evolved around it. The nature of Freud’s concept of aggression is that it is innate and thus a natural state. As one of the most powerful energies within the human mind aggression can cause serious damage mental and physical if it is not released in some way. Freud’s claims that some of the innate destructive energy is never released and so a person harbours the death instinct which eventually overcomes the other drives resulting in death. (Nye: 1975). Ultimately, the emotional life of a human being is destined to be a turbulent one: powerful energies conflict and override each other, and it is the role of psychodynamic therapy to uncover and understand the layers and symbolism within the psyche. A further understanding of these complex processes may be achieved through examining Freud’s concept of the ego and the nature of its functions. The Ego Freud suggested that the ego is a form of mediation between the urges of the id and the learnt morality in the super-ego, evolving as a person grows older in order to help them cope with the world. As the ego develops so does the person’s perception of reality, and a wider view is attained than simply the pleasures of subjective gratification. Freud’s pleasure principle thus becomes replaced by the ’reality principle’ (Stoodley: 1959, p.169). The desires of the id cannot always be realised, so the ego causes humans to convert them into other modes of behaviour;  not only in cathartic sport activities but also in people’s careers. Understanding the work environment in the context of the Psychodynamic Perspective will be discussed later. Freud likens the ego to a ‘a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse; with this difference, that the rider seeks to do so with  his own strength while the ego uses borrowed forces. () Often a rider, if he is not to be parted from his horse, is obliged to guide it where it wants to go; so in the same  way the ego constantly carries into action the wishes of the id as if they were its own.’ (Freud: 1927, p.30). Freud’s approach was radical for his time because he saw psychology very much through the same eyes as he saw evolution; as a process involving accumulative and transferable energy. Freud suggested that the energy levels in a person originating from the id and controlled, to an extent, by the ego (depending on circumstances) were affected by restrictions placed on that person by those around them. If these energies were not allowed to have an outlet then the person might suffer from anxiety. A strong ego will therefore develop as the person’s circumstances allow them to adjust to the real world while also going part of the way to satisfying the demands of the id. The Superego The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learnt from a person’s parents and other influential figures, and develops as a result of rewards and punishments as the individual grows up. The superego provides the personality with a conscience; a form of overview concerning right and wrong actions, which can cause a person to feel guilty. Freud termed the superego’s internal standard of what a person should be as the ‘ego-ideal’. (Nye: 1975, p.20). The superego is responsible for extremes of behaviour such as introvert behaviour, where  it will concern the person with too many of society’s rules, inhibiting the id and ’immobilizing the ego’s attempts to achieve satisfaction in the real world (Nye: 1975, p.20). On the other hand it can also cause extrovert behaviour where the individual abandons the expected standards of society. Anxiety and defence mechanisms When anxieties develop they can often be explained through the processes which  Freud termed ‘anxiety or defence mechanisms.’ The problem is to do with the  desires of the id they can be controlled by the superego and directed by the ego, but they still remain as very strong inclinations within the psyche. A desire of the id to act in a particular way may be thought of as wrong or punishable and thus creates guilt and tension anxiety within the person. The impulse might be expressed in a disguised form that society does approve of for example becoming a racing car driver or boxer as an outlet for aggression. Other ways of coping with the presence of inner energies are: Repression This is the phenomenon of forcing the uncomfortable desires, painful feelings and memories into the unconscious, only for them to affect our behaviour and mental states on a subliminal level, maybe emerging as Freudian slips or as symbolic imagery in nightmares. It is the job of the ego to try and prevent the ‘forgotten’ thoughts from returning to the conscious mind. Projection This occurs when someone assigns their own negative thoughts to another in order to  absolve themselves of the feeling. Denial Negative aspects of a situation may be avoided if the ego simply does not  acknowledge that they are there; this may be conscious or unconscious. Sublimation When forbidden impulses are channelled into socially acceptable behaviour or a socially beneficial situation for example, an aggressive man might choose to become  a martial arts teacher or a soldier. Alternatively, when a substitute action or transfer  of energy replaces the reaction to the person or object that originally caused the upset it is called displacement. The Psychodynamic Perspective in a healthcare setting Freud’s work has been influential not just in the field of psychology but also in conjunction with the sphere of mental health and social care. His group dynamics where he suggests that a group of people admit the same person a leader into their superego and identify with each other (Cave: 1999, p.57) can help individuals to understand the sometimes complex relations between work colleagues. For example, when a new worker joins a team it takes time to become integrated: Freud would say that this was due to the ‘personal space’ barrier (Cave: 1999, p.58) not yet being broken. Once the person is accepted then the group directs hostility to others outside of it, the barrier changing to a ‘group space’ barrier. More importantly an awareness of group processes can help ‘inform, promote insight, change behaviour or alleviate suffering.’(Cave: 1999, p.50). Understanding the relationships between individuals within a group is crucial for healthcare professionals who work in hospitals and care homes. For example, it could be beneficial to understand what facilitates group cohesion when working with discussion/therapy groups. Alternatively, a patient who is afraid of group work may  be best understood in isolation Freud’s psychoanalytic approach is commonly used in counselling and therapy for drug users, those who have been/are abused, and can be  beneficial to those suffering from obsessions and neurotic disorders. It is vital to have a good rapport and understanding between healthcare workers and patients to provide the best professional environment for recovery. Difficult situations often arise which require tact and discretion such as bereavement and can be understood in terms of Freud’s distinctions between the ego and the id and the conscious and unconscious mind. For example, an unusual pattern of behaviour (possibly anger or guilt) seen in a bereaved person might be attributed to a  defence mechanism which is masking the hidden conflict or upset associated with the death. Critical evaluation of the Psychodynamic Perspective Like all psychological theories, Freud’s is susceptible to heavy criticism because it is one of many perspectives all of which are formed by people trying to study other people making it difficult to attain complete objectivity. Skinner’s behaviourist theory criticises Freud for his belief that many guilt and anxiety complexes are sexually orientated (Nye: 1975, p.52), and there is also conflict between Freudian theorists and those psychologists who view behaviour as controlled by external factors: an example being the issue of suggestion in psychoanalysis and hypnosis. Take for instance, the case study of ‘Dora’ (Cave: 1975, p.37) whose abuse was suggested by Freud to be imagined, the consequence being that after counselling sessions with Freud she showed no signs of improvement. There is discrepancy about the meaning of dream symbols, and the outcome of hypnosis and psychoanalysis is often ambiguous and unreliable. Further problems occur when using hypnosis as therapy because the patient might not be properly under, and, as Freud himself found, they may even fall asleep. Nye notes that Freud used a restricted sample while developing his theory so  that it was not fully representative, and therefore his ideas only have limited applicability. (1975, p.146). Freud’s studies might also have been selectively chosen  to represent his ideas considering the complex nature of concepts such as the Oedipus complex it is unlikely that his findings were reliably consistent. As Webster says in criticism of Freud: (He) made no substantial intellectual discoveries. He was the creator of a complex pseudo-science which should be recognized as one of the great follies of Western civilization. In creating his particular pseudo-science, Freud developed an autocratic, anti-empirical intellectual style which has contributed immeasurably to the intellectual ills of our own era. (Webster: 1995, p.438) A large amount of Freudian theory is indeed based around hypothetical concepts such as the id and the ego, and is restricting in the sense that all behaviour can be traced back to some hidden primal source. Yet it is necessary to bear in mind that much of Freud’s theory has found its way into everyday language such as the ‘unconscious’ and ‘conscious mind‘, the ‘ego‘, etc, and this in itself suggests that the theory makes adequate sense to the human mind. Thus, we are left with a theory that is at the very least plausible but left very much open to interpretation: like many opposing theories evidence can be found for and against it, and it is left to the individual to determine whether or not the theory is acceptable to them. References Bland. J., 2003, About Gender: Freud, the Father of Psychoanalysis. Available from URL (http://www.gender.org.uk/about/01psanal/11_freud.htm). Bocock, R., 2002, Sigmund Freud. London: Routledge. Cave, S., 1999, Therapeutic Approaches in Psychology. London: Routledge. Gay, P., 1998. Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York: Norton. GuruNet, online dictionary, available from URL (www.questia.com). Freud, S., 1927. The Ego and the Id. Contributors: Joan Riviere transltr. London: Hogarth press, and the Institute of psycho-analysis. Messer, D., and Meldrum, 1995, Psychology for Nurses and Healthcare Professionals. Prentice Hall: London. Nye, R., 1975, The Three Psychologies, 3rd Ed. California: Brooks. Stoodley, B., H., 1959, The Concepts of Sigmund Freud. Glencoe: Free Press Webster, R., 1995, Available from URL (JavaScript:parent.bookWindow(../books/bookstz.html l WebsterR_1995) Background Reading Fine, R., D., 1962, Freud: A Critical Re-Evaluation of His Theories. New York: David Mckay. Jones, E., 1953, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud: The Formative Years and the Great Discoveries, 1856-1900. Volume: 1. New York: Basic Books. Levine, M., P., 2000, The Analytic Freud: Philosophy and Psychoanalysis. London: Routledge. Mansfield, N., 2000, Theories of the Self from Freud to Haraway. St. Leonards, N.S.W: Allen Unwin.

Animal Farm And Russian Revolution

Animal Farm And Russian Revolution Many of the animals in Animal Farm direct represent the dominant figures in Soviet Union from the times of the Russian Revolution to the Tehran Conference. First of all, Old Major who appears at the beginning of the novel is the animal version of Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx. Karl Marx was a philosopher who wrote The Communist Manifesto. This book talks about a communist government. This type of government abolishes class system and encourages equality among other human beings. Like Marx, Old Major also introduced the theory of Animalism where every animal should unite together against the humans. Old Major convinces the animal to believe in this theory by saying that their misfortunes can all be traced back to Man, who is the only creature that consumes without producing (Orwell, 7). In other words, Man takes advantage of the animals by forcing them to work themselves to death, while the Man does nothing but boss them around. Marx also wrote similar thing in his book when he talked about capitalist government taking advantage of the working class. Both Marx and Old Major never saw their theory come true during their lifetime but it was adopted soon after their death. Soviet Union adopted Communism in 1917 when Vladimir Lenin came to the power. Lenin was also another dominant figure in Soviet Union who resembles Old Major. He was the leader of the Bolshevik Party that seized control in the 1917 Revolution. He was inspired by Karl Marxs theory of Communism, which urges the workers of the world to unite against their economic oppressors. Like Lenin, Old Major outlines the principles of Animalism, a theory holding that all animals are equal and must revolt against their oppressors. Lenin was responsible for changing Russia into the U.S.S.R., as old Major is responsible for transforming Manor Farm into Animal Farm. The U.S.S.R.s flag depicted a hammer and sickle which was the tools of the rebelling workers and so the flag of Animal Farm features a horn and hoof. Se condly, Napoleon is an animal version of Joseph Stalin. Stalin was the second leader of the Soviet Union. After the revolution had occurred, Stalin was able to get rid of Trotsky, his main opponent. Like Stalin, Napoleon ran his opponent Snowball off the farm. Stalin then removed any other opponents and adopted some of their ideas. Likewise, in Animal Farm, Napoleon made sure no other animals would dispute him, and he took credit for Snowballs idea of building the windmill. Napoleon controlled the mind of the animals and some animals started believing that, Napoleon is always right, (Orwell, 48). Stalin and Napoleon both wanted their nations to be great, so they began to make plans to better their territories. While Stalin tried to industrialize the Soviet Union, Napoleon made plans to build the windmill to furnish electricity. Both also tried to get as much work as they could from the workers. Right before World War II, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Germany and trusted H itler to honour the terms. However, Stalin was deceived, and Germany invaded the Soviet Union. In Animal Farm Napoleon also trusted someone he should not have. Napoleon sold timber to Mr. Frederick, who deceived him by paying for the wood with false bank notes. Mr. Frederick and other farmers then tried to overrun Animal Farm, but they did not succeed like Germany never succeeds. Lastly, Character of Snowball is a representation of Leo Trotsky. Trotsky was one of the original revolutionaries but as Stalin rose to power he became one of Stalins biggest enemies, and was eventually expelled from the Politburo in 1925 after one year, Stalin took control of the nation. Politburo is a Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, (Merriam-Webster.com). In the novel, Snowball was exiled from the farm just as Trotsky had been in 1929. Trotsky was not only exiled in person, he was also expelled from the minds of the Russian people, his historical role was altered; his face was erased from the photographs of the leaders of the revolution. In Russia he was denounced as a traitor and conspirator, and in 1940 a Stalinist agent assassinated him in Mexico City. Napoleon used propaganda techniques to erase Snowball from other animals minds. Napoleon used to say: This explains that how animals were supposed to blame Snowball for any mishap that occurs on the farm. Mankind in the Animal Farm is also a direct representation of dominant figures in the Soviet Union and its surrounding countries. Mr. Jones, who is a farmer and the owner of Manor Farm, represents the last Czar of Russia, Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov (Nicholas II). During the Czar Nicholas IIs reign, the Russian people experienced terrible poverty and turmoil, which was marked by the Bloody Sunday massacre in 1905 when protesters demanding social reforms were shot down by the army near Nicholas palace. Like citizens of Soviet Union, animals were also not happy with Mr. Jones control. They said, Mr. Jones, had locked the hen-houses for the night, but was too drunk to remember to shut the pop-holes. With the light from his lantern dancing [], he drew himself a last glass of beer from the barrel [], and made his way up to bed[], (Orwell, 1). This shows that character of Mr. Jones demonstrates that having power in no way means one is responsible or worthy of that power. When Russia ent ered World War I and lost more men than any country in any previous war, the furious and desperate people began a series of strikes and rebellions that signalled the end of the Czars control. When his own generals withdrew their support of him, Nicholas renounced his throne in the hopes of avoiding a civil war but the civil war arrived in the form of the Bolshevik Revolution, when Nicholas, like Jones, was removed from his place of rule. Mr. Fredrick was an animal version of Adolf Hitler. Adolf Hitler was a ruthless dictator of Germany and was responsible for World War II. Mr. Frederick was also a tough, shrewd man, perpetually involved in law suits and with a name for driving hard bargains, (Orwell, 38). These characteristic are similar to Hitlers characteristic and actions. Through the course of the book, Fredrick becomes an enemy and then a friend and then an enemy again to Napoleon, who makes many secret deals and treaties with him. One of the major problems the two farms have i s the issue of the timber. Napoleon sells the wood to Frederick for bank notes, only to find that they are false. During the world wide depression, countries were forced by necessity to trade with other countries. One country would have a product or natural resource another country would not; therefore to survive, the country would trade. Many times the trades were unfair and fraudulent. This created many international problems. Also, the deal symbolized the Non-Aggression Pact between Hitler and Stalin prior to World War II. This pact was then broken by Hitler when he invaded the Soviet Union. The breaking of the pact is similar to Frederick giving false notes to Napoleon. Pilkington symbolizes all the allies of the World War II except the Soviet Union. Like the Soviet Union before World War II, Animal Farm wasnt sure who their allies would be. But after losing the relationship with Frederick (Germany), Napoleon (Stalin) decides to befriend Pilkington, and ally with him. Napoleon a nd the other pigs even go as far as inviting him over for dinner at the end of the book. Here Mr. Pilkington and his men congratulate Napoleon on the efficiency of Animal Farm. Russias allies, after the war, also admired its efficiency. Pilkington says, If you have your lower animals to contend with, we have our lower classes! (Orwell, 94). This represents the good relationship between them. Also, Pilkingtons large, poorly managed farm was figurative to the expansive British Empire, which was crumbling during the Second World War. This is in contrast to Frederick, who has the opposite scenario for a small, better managed farm. After the end of World War II, the Cold War was ignited between the US and the Soviet Union, similar to the end of the meeting where both Napoleon and Pilkington play simultaneously Ace of Spades, then get into a bad argument over it. Many of the key events in The Animal Farm are representation of the events that occurred in the Soviet Union. Building of the windmill is a symbol of Stalins Five Year Plan. Just as the windmill was promised to make the animals life easier, the Five-Year Plan was supposed to improve the Soviet industry as well as the working class life by increasing production and allowing the Soviets to shorten the work-week. And just like the windmill, Stalins plan was a failure. After the destruction of the Windmill, the Animals decided to build another one and in real-life, Stalin also kept mixing out new Five-year Plans promising that each new plan would solve all of Russias problems and bring the USSR closer to equality with the industrialized nations of the west. Snowball was in a league with Jones from the start! He was Joness secret agent all the time, (Orwell, 53), was Napoleons excuse to make the animals angry when the windmill was destroyed. This made animals to finish the windmill to sho w Snowball their unity. Battle of Cowshed represents the civil war between the Tsarists forces and Bolsheviks. This war is also known as the Red October. This is where the Tsarists tried to take back the reign but they were defeated again. In the novel, Mr. Jones tried to back his farm but he was defeated. This only strengthens the animal farm. Animal Revolution represents Russian Revolution as a whole. There are a few things to notice about the Battle of Cowshed. First, Snowball (Trotsky) emerges as a military hero. Second, Mollie the horse, who represents the Russian upper-middle-class runs off and plays little role in the battle. Third, Boxer, or the double for the working class, reveals himself as a powerful military force. As the narrator tells us, the most terrifying spectacle of all was Boxer, rearing up on his hind legs and striking out with his great iron-shod hoofs like a stallion, (Orwell, 28). The Animal Revolution was supposed to make life better for everyone, but the l ife was worse at the end. The leaders also became the same as, or worse than, the other farmers (humans) they rebelled against. Even Russian Revolution was supposed to fix problems created by Czar, but the life became even worse after revolution. Both of these revolutions are based on the Communist theory and they both created tensions among the working and higher classes. Many of the events, humans, and animals in the novel Animal Farm are direct representations of Soviet Unions and its surrounding areas. As you can see almost every event in the novel can be traced directly to an event in Russia during the period from 1900-1943, the overthrowing of Nicholas the Second to the battle of Cowshed. also all most all of the characters from Animal Farm can be traced to a person or group of people involved in the Russian Revolution for example Napoleon represents Stalin in the way that he is obsessed with keeping power, and that he gives the pigs special treatment, also the way he use propaganda to make outsiders believe everything is great and that he is a god like leader who could never do wrong. One of the most obvious reasons that napoleon represents Stalin is the way Napoleon over threw Snowball the way Stalin over threw Lenin. Also as is proven by the previous statement Snowball represents Lenin, in the way that he took the teachings of Old major (Karl Marx) and over threw Mr. Jones (Nicholas the second). Snowball was great speakers as was Lenin, both were highly regarded by their followers and both were betrayed by their comrades. Work Cited Orwell, George. Animal Farm;. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1954. Print. George Orwell Animal Farm Interpretation of Characters and Symbols =. The Complete Newspeak Dictionary from George Orwells 1984. Web. 10 Jan. 2011. . Politburo. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2011. Merriam-Webster Online. 6 January 2011 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politburo Grofman, Bernard. Pig and Proletariat: Animal Farm as History. Irvine: School of Social Sciences, University of California, 1978. Print. The History of Russian Revolution. Marxist. Web. 10 Dec. 2011. .

To what extent does Jane Eyre’s past affect her fate? :: English Literature

To what extend does Jane Eyre’s past affect her fate? Charlotte Brontà « uses many different ways to affect Jane Eyre’s fate. By giving Jane a difficult and tiresome childhood from a very young age it has an effect on her adult life. From a very early age Jane Eyre had a very unusual childhood. She started in a very unloving family with her aunts and cousins. She felt unloved and had a sense of refusal. Her cousin John beat her and she always hit back. When she did so, she was often caught and locked in the red room. Her auntie sent her to Loward boarding school. This was a very worrying time for Jane because already at the age of around 10 she has had no love and care in her life. The boarding school didn’t aid her in anyway. At boarding school Jane did not fit in. Again she was not cared for. She felt unsafe, unhappy, but does find her first friend. Helen Burns is a real turning point in Jane’s life. Jane really stood up for her new friend too. When Helen gets punished Jane stays with her. Little bits like this help to shape Jane into a Lady and who she will be when she is older. Jane’s new friend was a good believer in God. When Helen was very ill, Jane realises that Helen is in trouble and could die, Helen tells Jane what will happen when she dies. â€Å"I am very happy, Jane; and when you hear that I am dead, you must be sure and not grieve: there is nothing to grieve about.† This scene takes part in Helen’s bed, and is a very touching scene of the two girls bonding. The scene is clam and relaxed. By using long sentences, you can get a feel that Helen’s voice is soft, and that there is there are no interruptions. Helen goes on later to say, â€Å"I have only a father, and he is lately married, and will not miss me. By dying young, I shall escape great sufferings. I had not qualities or talents to make my way very well in the world: I should have been continually at fault† Jane and Helen have something in common here. The girls both have the sense that their families don’t love them and that they are in life on their own. But, now they have found each other, the girls are comforted that they are not the only ones. Helen has her own beliefs and opinions too. â€Å"†¦my Maker and yours, who will never destroy what He created. I rely

The Australian Aboriginal People: Dating the Colonization of Australia :: Biology Biological Colony Essays

The Australian Aboriginal People: Dating the Colonization of Australia Abstract The colonization of each continent by modern human populations remains an important question in our history as a species. Studies of variations in mitochondrial genomes, Y-chromosomes, satellite DNA, and other genetic markers can be used to estimate the time of divergence of one population from another. Recent advancements in technology have advanced our capabilities in genetic analysis. In particular, PCR can be used to amplify, study, and sequence DNA from long-deceased specimens. Ingman and Gyllensten studied 101 complete mitochondrial genomes from contemporary populations in Australia and many other regions. The mitochondrial genetic diversity of Aboriginals is remarkably high, similar to that found in Asia. Ingman and Gyllesten estimated colonization of Australia at 40,000-70,000 years ago and supported multiple waves of migration. Another study by Adcock and others indicates that anatomically modern humans were present in Australia before complete fixation of the mtDNA lineage, but does not establish a colonization date. A study of Y-chromosome variation by Vandenburg and others in 1999 revealed two haplotypes unique to Australian Aboriginals. Most (78%) of Aboriginal haplotypes fell into two clusters, possibly indicating two original, separate lineages of founding Aboriginal Australians. As recently as the 1960’s, anthropologists predicted the colonization of Australia at less than 10,000 years ago. Advancments in thermoluminescence dating pushed back the estimated colonization time to 50,000-60,000 years ago in the early 1990’s. Improvements in thermoluminescence and carbon dating techniques adjusted previous colonization dates of 50,000-60,000 years to approximately 45,000 years. The results of morphological dating best-support the multiregional evolution hypothesis of modern humans, and further complicate the possible ancestry of modern Australian Aboriginals. Mitochondrial DNA analysis, recent thermoluminescence dates, and the history of ocean levels coincide roughly to indicate a colonization of Australia at approximately 50,000 years ago. Introduction Throughout recorded history, humans have been defined by a desire to know ourselves: Where did we come from? How did we get here? Where are we going? Many questions are directed towards our appearance as a species and subsequent populating of the earth, -- piece by piece. One particularly large piece of the earth is Australia: a continent, a country, and a mystery in human history. Though the major events in Australian natural history have been revealed, for the most part, human history remains a great topic of debate.